Continental Drift
Looking at a map of the Earth, it appears that the continents could fit
together like a jigsaw puzzle.
Alfred Wegener (1915) proposed the idea of "continental drift."
Wegener suggested that a single "supercontinent" called Pangaea once
existed in the past.
Continental Drift
Wegener developed his idea based upon 4 different types of evidence:
1. Fit of the Continents
2. Fossil Evidence
3. Rock Type and Stuctural Similarities
4. Paleoclimatic Evidence
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Fit of the Continents
It was the amazingly good
fit of the continents that first
suggested the idea of
continental drift.
In the 1960's, it was
recognized that the fit of the
continents could be even
further improved by fitting
the continents at the edge
of the continental slope —
the actual extent of the
continental crust.
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Fossil Evidence
Wegener found that identical fossils were located directly opposite on
widely separated continents.
This had been realized previously but the idea of "land bridges" was the
most widely accepted solution.
Wegener found fossils to be convincing evidence that a supercontinent
had existed in the past.
Example:
Mesosaurus
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Rock Type and Structural Similarities
We find similar rock types on continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic
Ocean.
Similar, age, structure and rock types are found in the Appalachian Mtns.
(N.A.) and mountains in Scotland and Scandinavia.
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Rock Type and Structural Similarities
When the continents are reassembled, the mountain chains from a
continuous belt — having the same rock types, structures and rock ages.
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Paleoclimatic Evidence
Glacial till of the same age is found in southern Africa, South America,
India and Australia — areas that it would be very difficult to explain the
occurrence of glaciation.
At the same time, large coal
deposits were formed from tropical
swamps in N. America and
Europe.
Pangaea with S. Africa centered
over the South Pole could account
for the conditions necessary to
generate glacial ice in the
southern continents.
In addition, the areas with
extensive coal deposits from the
same time period occur in regions
that would have been equatorial.
Science is based on more than mere empirical observation — we strive to
understand the mechanisms.
We must develop a theory to explain our observations.
Wegener's idea of continental drift was not generally accepted because no
one could come up with a reasonable mechanism for the movement of the
continents.
(Movie: Breakup of Pangaea)
It was not until the 1960's that further data led to the development of a the
theory of plate tectonics that could explain the movement of continents.
Paleomagnetism
The Earth's magnetic field produces invisible lines of force that extend from
one pole to the other.
A compass needle aligns itself with these lines of force — points toward the
magnetic poles.
When igneous rocks
containing magnetic minerals
crystallize, the crystals align
themselves with the Earth's
magnetic field.
The magnetic field of the rock
then points toward the
magnetic pole that existed
when the rock formed.
If the rock is moved, its
magnetic field will act as a
"fossil compass."
Magnetized minerals can also
The Earth's magnetic field is
curved, and the inclination of
the magnetic grains gives an
estimate of the paleolatitude.
Magnetized minerals can also
The Earth's magnetic field is
curved, and the inclination of
the magnetic grains gives an
estimate of the paleolatitude.
Paleomagnetism
be used to determine the
latitude of their origin.
Equator: horizontal
Mid-latitude: high angle
Pole: straight up
Pole Wandering
Looking at igneous rocks, the apparent position of the North Pole was
determined from the paleomagnetism of the rock.
Assuming that the magnetic
poles are approximately
coincident with the pole of
rotation, the apparent
movement of the poles
must be due to movement
of the continents.
Curves are similar shape
for N. America & Europe
except that they were offset
by ~24° of longitude.
Pole Wandering
If the two continents are placed next to one another to how we believe
they fit in Pangaea, the apparent pole wandering paths coincide.
This would represent the time
before the opening of the
Atlantic Ocean
Seafloor Spreading
Harry Hess (1960's) proposed the theory of seafloor spreading based
upon this evidence and newly published maps of the seafloor topography
indicating the existence of a world-wide mid-ocean ridge system.
He proposed
that ridges are
located above
zones of
upwelling in the
mantle —
resulting in the
creation of
seafloor.
He also
proposed
subduction as a
mechanism for
recycling of the
seafloor.
Geomagnetic Reversals
Earth's magnetic field periodically reverses polarity — the north and south
poles switch.
Rocks crystallizing during one of these periods of magnetic reversal will be
magnetized with a polarity opposite of rocks the crystallize today.
Geomagnetic Reversals — Seafloor
Using a magnetometer, oceanographers discovered that the seafloor has
regions of low- and high-intensity magnetism.
It was further found that these zones occur as stripes parallel to the ridge
crest.
High-intensity zones
correspond to seafloor
formed during a period of
normal magnetic polarity (2
fields add together).
Low intensity zones
correspond to seafloor
formed during a period of
reversed magnetic polarity (2
fields cancel each other out).
Geomagnetic Reversals — Seafloor
As new seafloor is created at the ridge, it is added in equal amounts to
both trailing edges of the spreading seafloor.
We would expect to see the pattern of stripes as mirror images on both
sides of the ridge — strongest evidence for seafloor spreading.
In the Pacific, the
stripes are much wider
— indicating a faster
rate of spreading (or
creation of new
seafloor).
In the Atlantic, the
stripes are much more
narrow — indicating a
relatively slow rate of
spreading.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Concepts of continental drift and seafloor spreading are united into a
much more encompassing theory known as plate tectonics.
This is a far-reaching theory that has become the basis for viewing most
geologic processes — mountain building, paleontology, volcanism,
earthquakes, etc.
The Earth's surface is composed of rigid plates known as the lithosphere.
These plates overly a weaker region of the mantle known as the
aesthenosphere.
There are 7 major plates and over a dozen smaller plates.
Plates move slowly but continously on the order of a few cm/year.
Plate Boundaries
There are 3 distinct types of boundaries:
1. divergent — plates move away from one another
2. convergent — plates move into one another (collision)
3. transform — plate grind past one another
Each plate is bounded by a variety of plate boundaries.
New plates can be created by forces that split plates apart such as at
the East African Rift Valleys.
Two plates may suture together to form one plate such as may happen
with the Himalayans.
Most situated along the crests of the mid-Most situated along the crests of the mid-
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
ocean ridges.
Typical spreading rates are ~5 cm/year,
however, range from 2 to 20 cm/year.
Red Sea and Gulf of California — new
spreading ridges developing
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
Continental crust can begin to rift from upward movement of hot rock from
mantle.
Uplift results in extension that stretches the crust.
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
Extension of the crust is accompanied by episodes of faulting and
volcanism.
This results in rift valley like the East African Rift Valleys.
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
As the spreading continues, the rift valley will widen and deepen,
extending out to the sea.
The valley then becomes a narrow linear sea — Red Sea, Gulf of
California.
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
The rifting will continue until a full blown ridge system is created forming a
large ocean basin --— ex. Atlantic Ocean.
Convergent Boundaries — Ocean-Continent Collisions
Denser oceanic crust is subducted — trench, accretionary wedge,
volcanism.
Examples: Andes, Cascade Range
Sierra Nevada represents an inactive continental arc.
Convergent Boundaries — Ocean-Ocean Collisions
Similar to ocean-continent collision except that volcanoes can form
islands — volcanic island arc.
Ex. Aleutian Islands, Mariana, Tonga Islands.
Convergent Boundaries — Continent-Continent Collisions
Usually preceded by subduction until continents smash into one
another.
Results in thicken of crust and jumbled mess of many rock types
superimposed on one another.
Example: Himalayan Mtns.
Himilayan mountains as an example of continent-continent collision
Transform Plate Boundaries
Characterized by strike-slip motion — two plates grind past one another.
Example: California
Transform Plate Boundaries
Most transform boundaries occur in association with mid-ocean ridge
systems — forming fracture zones which include the transform fault and
their inactive extensions into the plate interior.
These transform fault occur about every 100 km along a ridge and offset
the ridge crest.
Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes
Most earthquakes are coincident with plate boundaries — due to
movement along boundaries.
Divergent and transform boundaries usually result in shallow earthquakes.
Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes
Subduction zones
result in a range of
depths of
earthquakes —
Benioff zone.
Hotspots
Most volcanic activity is associated with plate boundaries — MOR,
subduction, etc.
Some "intraplate" volcanoes are the result of a plate moving across a
mantle hot spot.
Looking at a map of the Earth, it appears that the continents could fit
together like a jigsaw puzzle.
Alfred Wegener (1915) proposed the idea of "continental drift."
Wegener suggested that a single "supercontinent" called Pangaea once
existed in the past.
Continental Drift
Wegener developed his idea based upon 4 different types of evidence:
1. Fit of the Continents
2. Fossil Evidence
3. Rock Type and Stuctural Similarities
4. Paleoclimatic Evidence
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Fit of the Continents
It was the amazingly good
fit of the continents that first
suggested the idea of
continental drift.
In the 1960's, it was
recognized that the fit of the
continents could be even
further improved by fitting
the continents at the edge
of the continental slope —
the actual extent of the
continental crust.
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Fossil Evidence
Wegener found that identical fossils were located directly opposite on
widely separated continents.
This had been realized previously but the idea of "land bridges" was the
most widely accepted solution.
Wegener found fossils to be convincing evidence that a supercontinent
had existed in the past.
Example:
Mesosaurus
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Rock Type and Structural Similarities
We find similar rock types on continents on opposite sides of the Atlantic
Ocean.
Similar, age, structure and rock types are found in the Appalachian Mtns.
(N.A.) and mountains in Scotland and Scandinavia.
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Rock Type and Structural Similarities
When the continents are reassembled, the mountain chains from a
continuous belt — having the same rock types, structures and rock ages.
Evidence for Continental Drift:
Paleoclimatic Evidence
Glacial till of the same age is found in southern Africa, South America,
India and Australia — areas that it would be very difficult to explain the
occurrence of glaciation.
At the same time, large coal
deposits were formed from tropical
swamps in N. America and
Europe.
Pangaea with S. Africa centered
over the South Pole could account
for the conditions necessary to
generate glacial ice in the
southern continents.
In addition, the areas with
extensive coal deposits from the
same time period occur in regions
that would have been equatorial.
Science is based on more than mere empirical observation — we strive to
understand the mechanisms.
We must develop a theory to explain our observations.
Wegener's idea of continental drift was not generally accepted because no
one could come up with a reasonable mechanism for the movement of the
continents.
(Movie: Breakup of Pangaea)
It was not until the 1960's that further data led to the development of a the
theory of plate tectonics that could explain the movement of continents.
Paleomagnetism
The Earth's magnetic field produces invisible lines of force that extend from
one pole to the other.
A compass needle aligns itself with these lines of force — points toward the
magnetic poles.
When igneous rocks
containing magnetic minerals
crystallize, the crystals align
themselves with the Earth's
magnetic field.
The magnetic field of the rock
then points toward the
magnetic pole that existed
when the rock formed.
If the rock is moved, its
magnetic field will act as a
"fossil compass."
Magnetized minerals can also
The Earth's magnetic field is
curved, and the inclination of
the magnetic grains gives an
estimate of the paleolatitude.
Magnetized minerals can also
The Earth's magnetic field is
curved, and the inclination of
the magnetic grains gives an
estimate of the paleolatitude.
Paleomagnetism
be used to determine the
latitude of their origin.
Equator: horizontal
Mid-latitude: high angle
Pole: straight up
Pole Wandering
Looking at igneous rocks, the apparent position of the North Pole was
determined from the paleomagnetism of the rock.
Assuming that the magnetic
poles are approximately
coincident with the pole of
rotation, the apparent
movement of the poles
must be due to movement
of the continents.
Curves are similar shape
for N. America & Europe
except that they were offset
by ~24° of longitude.
Pole Wandering
If the two continents are placed next to one another to how we believe
they fit in Pangaea, the apparent pole wandering paths coincide.
This would represent the time
before the opening of the
Atlantic Ocean
Seafloor Spreading
Harry Hess (1960's) proposed the theory of seafloor spreading based
upon this evidence and newly published maps of the seafloor topography
indicating the existence of a world-wide mid-ocean ridge system.
He proposed
that ridges are
located above
zones of
upwelling in the
mantle —
resulting in the
creation of
seafloor.
He also
proposed
subduction as a
mechanism for
recycling of the
seafloor.
Geomagnetic Reversals
Earth's magnetic field periodically reverses polarity — the north and south
poles switch.
Rocks crystallizing during one of these periods of magnetic reversal will be
magnetized with a polarity opposite of rocks the crystallize today.
Geomagnetic Reversals — Seafloor
Using a magnetometer, oceanographers discovered that the seafloor has
regions of low- and high-intensity magnetism.
It was further found that these zones occur as stripes parallel to the ridge
crest.
High-intensity zones
correspond to seafloor
formed during a period of
normal magnetic polarity (2
fields add together).
Low intensity zones
correspond to seafloor
formed during a period of
reversed magnetic polarity (2
fields cancel each other out).
Geomagnetic Reversals — Seafloor
As new seafloor is created at the ridge, it is added in equal amounts to
both trailing edges of the spreading seafloor.
We would expect to see the pattern of stripes as mirror images on both
sides of the ridge — strongest evidence for seafloor spreading.
In the Pacific, the
stripes are much wider
— indicating a faster
rate of spreading (or
creation of new
seafloor).
In the Atlantic, the
stripes are much more
narrow — indicating a
relatively slow rate of
spreading.
Theory of Plate Tectonics
Concepts of continental drift and seafloor spreading are united into a
much more encompassing theory known as plate tectonics.
This is a far-reaching theory that has become the basis for viewing most
geologic processes — mountain building, paleontology, volcanism,
earthquakes, etc.
The Earth's surface is composed of rigid plates known as the lithosphere.
These plates overly a weaker region of the mantle known as the
aesthenosphere.
There are 7 major plates and over a dozen smaller plates.
Plates move slowly but continously on the order of a few cm/year.
Plate Boundaries
There are 3 distinct types of boundaries:
1. divergent — plates move away from one another
2. convergent — plates move into one another (collision)
3. transform — plate grind past one another
Each plate is bounded by a variety of plate boundaries.
New plates can be created by forces that split plates apart such as at
the East African Rift Valleys.
Two plates may suture together to form one plate such as may happen
with the Himalayans.
Most situated along the crests of the mid-Most situated along the crests of the mid-
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
ocean ridges.
Typical spreading rates are ~5 cm/year,
however, range from 2 to 20 cm/year.
Red Sea and Gulf of California — new
spreading ridges developing
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
Continental crust can begin to rift from upward movement of hot rock from
mantle.
Uplift results in extension that stretches the crust.
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
Extension of the crust is accompanied by episodes of faulting and
volcanism.
This results in rift valley like the East African Rift Valleys.
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
As the spreading continues, the rift valley will widen and deepen,
extending out to the sea.
The valley then becomes a narrow linear sea — Red Sea, Gulf of
California.
Plate Boundaries — Divergent Boundaries
The rifting will continue until a full blown ridge system is created forming a
large ocean basin --— ex. Atlantic Ocean.
Convergent Boundaries — Ocean-Continent Collisions
Denser oceanic crust is subducted — trench, accretionary wedge,
volcanism.
Examples: Andes, Cascade Range
Sierra Nevada represents an inactive continental arc.
Convergent Boundaries — Ocean-Ocean Collisions
Similar to ocean-continent collision except that volcanoes can form
islands — volcanic island arc.
Ex. Aleutian Islands, Mariana, Tonga Islands.
Convergent Boundaries — Continent-Continent Collisions
Usually preceded by subduction until continents smash into one
another.
Results in thicken of crust and jumbled mess of many rock types
superimposed on one another.
Example: Himalayan Mtns.
Himilayan mountains as an example of continent-continent collision
Transform Plate Boundaries
Characterized by strike-slip motion — two plates grind past one another.
Example: California
Transform Plate Boundaries
Most transform boundaries occur in association with mid-ocean ridge
systems — forming fracture zones which include the transform fault and
their inactive extensions into the plate interior.
These transform fault occur about every 100 km along a ridge and offset
the ridge crest.
Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes
Most earthquakes are coincident with plate boundaries — due to
movement along boundaries.
Divergent and transform boundaries usually result in shallow earthquakes.
Plate Tectonics and Earthquakes
Subduction zones
result in a range of
depths of
earthquakes —
Benioff zone.
Hotspots
Most volcanic activity is associated with plate boundaries — MOR,
subduction, etc.
Some "intraplate" volcanoes are the result of a plate moving across a
mantle hot spot.
Good job :) :D
ردحذف